Mathematics anxiety-2

Mathematics anxiety exists in some adults (Perry, 2004), including teachers (Haylock, 2003), and is infl uenced by people’s beliefs (Tobias, 1978). It has been described both as an irrational phobia (Hodges, 1983), and a rational fear rooted in real experience of failure and inadequacy (Perry, 2004). Associated emotional factors include ‘anger’ (Cherkas, 1992), ‘tension’ (Richardson and Suinn, 1972), ‘guilt’ (Cockcroft, 1982) and ‘panic, dislike, anxiety, bewilderment, fear, fright, terror, stupidity, frustration, and a fear of looking stupid’ (Buxton, 1981).

The abstract nature of mathematics could be a cause of anxiety according to Orton and Frobisher (1996). A common belief appears to exist that rules must be applied in a set way that must be remembered, dependent on previous understanding (Cornell, 1999), with a lack of creativity in reaching answers (Austin and Wadlington, 1992). Students can be prevented from understanding by being taught mathematics without an investigative, open-ended approach (Oxford and Anderson, 1995). If mathematics is portrayed as putting procedure into practice, then students may believe it involves following rules to find the right answer and such

learning by rote can lead to mathematics anxiety (Cornell, 1999).

Brady and Bowd (2005) provide evidence of students being expected to understand after brief explanations

of concepts, and even teachers embarrassing students. Haylock (2003) provides evidence of: ...the negative effect …of the teacher’s response to …failure to understand... (Haylock, 2003:4)

on the part of the learner. Another identifi ed concern is the feeling of ‘being found out’ by someone judgemental and ‘in authority’ (Buxton, 1981), with teachers always seen as correct and students accepting blame for not understanding. Brady and Bowd (2005) describe hostility, impatience and insensitivity in mathematics teachers that added to mathematics anxiety.

Teachers following objectives that do not match students’ needs can cause anxiety (Oberlin, 1982). Buxton (1981) questions whether there are specifi c areas of mathematics that cause particular problems, such as long division. Mathematics done at speed is revealed as a negative past school experience (Buxton, 1981) alongside the need for accuracy and showing neat working out (Cockcroft, 1982).

Key factors identifi ed as leading to anxiety in mathematics are its link to real life (Cornell, 1999) and its usefulness (McLeod, 1992), whereas Buxton (1981) argues for the ‘power, enjoyment’ and ‘pleasure’ of engaging in mathematical activity for its own purpose. However, Suggate, Davis and Goulding (1998:X) suggest a lack of enjoyment in students of mathematics who are:  mentally scarred by past experiences of failure... with teachers’ expectations set too high (Haylock, 2003). According to Cockcroft (1982:101): Once attitudes have been formed, they can be very persistent and difficult to change.

Students told by teachers that they cannot do mathematics may believe this, and it need take only one teacher to create lasting mathematics anxiety in a learner (Perry, 2004). Concern about doing well in mathematics (McLeod, 1992) and associated methods of assessment are an identified source of anxiety (Perry, 2004). Difficulties also lie in the exclusivity of mathematical symbols and notation (Schwartz, 2000). Gender has been identified as a possible cause of mathematics anxiety with the notion that males are better at mathematics than females (Furner and Duffy, 2002). Brady and Bowd (2005) suggest that girls receive less help and more ridicule when experiencing diffi culties, and Tobias (1978) purports the notion that girls believed they would invite social unpopularity if they were seen to be good at mathematics.

According to DfES (2002:2), while: ...teachers can and do make huge differences to children’s lives …indirectly through their …attitudes..., Winteridge (1989) claims that: ...many primary school teachers lack confidence in their mathematical abilities. Winteridge (1989:5) and Tishler (1980) state that teachers may be prevented by mathematics anxiety from learning what is needed to become effective teachers of mathematics themselves. Williams (1988) suggests that teachers pass on their negative attitudes to students, and Wood (1988) that their own teaching may be affected. Tobias (1978) finds some choosing to teach younger children assuming that the mathematics required is easier. In order to teach, mathematical understanding is needed and Tobias (1991) claims that self belief in the ability to do mathematics is needed alongside a resolve to do something about being afraid of it. The purpose of this review of literature was to establish the existence and manifestation of mathematics anxiety, together with possible causes, to generate questions for use in research with primary teaching students, the intention being to carry out quantitative research to find out whether the issues arising from theory are substantiated in current practice.

Mathematics anxiety is the subject of Math Curse (Scieszka & Smith, 1995), a popular children’s book. Fun and humor are incorporated into this book; however, mathematics anxiety is anything but fun and humorous to thousands of people. In the book a dream--after a day of being cursed with grueling mathematics--is the cure for the girl’s mathematics anxiety. In reality, however, it should be so simple. From the second grader who cannot understand the concept of place value to the high school algebra student who dreads the moment the teacher calls on him for an explanation to the mathematics teacher who is fearful of math, mathematics anxiety, “without treatment, seems to stay with the victims throughout their entire lives” (Greenwood, 1984, p. 662).

Richardson and Suinn (1972) state mathematics anxiety “involves feelings of tension and anxiety that interfere with the manipulation of numbers and the solving of mathematical problems in a wide variety of ordinary life and academic situations” (p. 551). Another definition, according to Tobias and Weissbrod (1980), claims mathematics anxiety is “the panic, helplessness, paralysis, and mental disorganization that arises among some people when they are required to solve a mathematical problem” (p. 65). Mathophobia, a synonym for mathematics anxiety according to Williams (1988), is described by Lazarus (1974) as an “irrational and impeditive dread of mathematics” (p. 16). Hodges (1983) asserts frustration in mathematics stems from failure in mathematics. As a result, students develop mathematics anxiety. One of the results of mathematics anxiety is an illness called mathophobia (Hodges, 1983, p. 17).

No matter which of the many definitions is used to describe it, mathematics anxiety is most definitely a problem for many people. Researchers and educators alike have offered various reasons for this anxiety, from negative teacher experiences to lack of family support. Likewise, these same people have offered suggestions for preventing or reducing mathematics anxiety, from thinking more positively about mathematics to relaxation methods to acquiring better mathematics study skills. While all of these suggestions may sound plausible and may indeed prove to be successful in the case of preventing or reducing mathematics anxiety, many of them have no validity; there is no research to back up whether or not these suggestions help to alleviate mathematics anxiety. It seems, in fact, that research on mathematics anxiety is limited. Therefore, it is imperative to understand what research has been conducted in order to begin to help people overcome their mathematics anxiety. Through validated research, this goal can begin to be met.

It seems that fear of numbers and all-around anxiety toward mathematics have increasingly become a significant educational issue over the past thirty years (Greenwood, 1984; Williams, 1988). In light of how mathematics anxiety can affect a person’s self-esteem and worth, it is of utmost importance to implement meaningful interventions for reducing mathematics anxiety. Therefore, as educators and as society, it is crucial to discover ways mathematics anxiety can be reduced. The focus of this thesis is to evaluate, through past research, the overall classroom climate and how it relates to mathematics anxiety. More specifically, this evaluation will attempt to address two questions. Does relational teaching (teaching in which students take a more active, hands-on role in their mathematics learning) reduce mathematics anxiety and do teachers’ attitudes in the classroom (expressed verbally and non-verbally) affect students’ attitudes toward mathematics as well as their mathematics anxiety? In terms of attitudes, it is important to understand that this thesis focuses on teachers’ overall demeanor in the classroom. Negative verbal responses to students are included in this demeanor. This means inappropriate words spoken to students or appropriate words spoken to students in a negative tone. Nonverbal responses like sighing and having his or her arms crossed in frustration are also considered part of this demeanor. However, this thesis focuses on positive teacher attitudes as well, in which teachers praise and encourage students throughout the mathematics class. Throughout the studies on attitudes in chapter two, other factors besides teacher attitudes are discussed as influences on students’ attitudes toward mathematics and their mathematics anxiety. However, teacher attitudes are the primary focus in this thesis.

According to Zaslavsky (1994), although mathematics anxiety has more than likely existed for hundreds of years, this syndrome where people believe they cannot do mathematics became an interest to educators during the feminist movement of the 1970’s. Many high school girls during this time were not taking the needed mathematics classes in order to put them on the track to promising careers with handsome salaries. Tobias (1978) says, “. . . women are predestined to study certain subjects and pursue certain occupations not only because these areas are ‘feminine’ but because girls are socialized not to study math” (p. 12). As a result of the awareness of mathematics anxiety by researchers like Tobias, the hush-hush thoughts and ideas about being afraid of mathematics—for men and women—were being addressed. Finally, instances where people were avoiding keeping score in card games, assuming the car salesman’s numbers were correct, and declaring history as a major in order to dodge more mathematics classes were being thought of as “okay” things to do because now an explanation existed.

Since the awareness of mathematics anxiety in the 1970’s, Elliott (1983) claims three specific types of math-anxious people exist—the mathematics memorizer, the mathematics avoider, and the self-professed mathematics incompetent. Elliott says noncreativity is associated with the mathematics memorizer. Math memorizers, according to Wheatley (1977), look for an algorithm to solve mathematics problems. When one

cannot be identified, the mathematics memorizer assumes the problem is unsolvable. Due to the constant looking for an algorithm, the mathematics memorizer never gives the creative part of the mind a chance to work. Resulting from this constant occurrence of denying creativity is the psychopathology of non-creativity.

Negativism is associated with the mathematics avoider, according to Elliott (1983). The mathematics avoider has failed in mathematics in the past, and therefore predicts future failures. This type of mathematics anxious person creates a self-fulfilling prophecy because of the constant attention to believing failure will occur. Motivation and drive are destroyed due to the negativism. As a result, these people do not do well in mathematics, which leads to the avoidance of taking more mathematics classes in the future.

According to Elliott (1983), low self-esteem is associated with the self-professed mathematics incompetent. Continuously encountering mathematics problems that cannot be solved truly affects the egos of some people. The self-professed mathematics incompetent feels he or she is the only one to blame for not being able to do mathematics—that something is wrong with him or her and never think other people or instances might be the culprit of their anxiety. As their self-esteem plummets, more mathematics anxiety is created and their confidence lessens. Martinez (1987) claims symptoms of a mathematics anxious person include turning in math assignments late, asking to be excused frequently from class, and saying negative things about mathematics. Feelings and thoughts about mathematics anxiety, according to Aksu and Saygi (1988), include tension, panic, helplessness, fear, distress, shame, and the inability to cope. Arem (2003) adds that mathematics anxious people can feel disorganized, confused, insecure, as well as experience shortness of breath, muscle tightness, or physical sickness.

Mathematics anxiety can influence students’ mathematical performance physically by affecting memory (Kogelman and Warren, 1978) and creating nervousness and an inability to concentrate (Tobias, 1978). Cockcroft (1982) found people developing coping strategies for everyday life, and Brady and Bowd (2005)

describe people avoiding mathematics where possible. Being ‘no good’ at mathematics is often admitted (Haylock, 2003), and may be passed on to students by their parents (Furner and Duffy, 2002). Beliefs leading to mathematics anxiety include that a ‘mathematical mind’ is needed (Furner and Duffy, 2002); that the left/right brain is dominant (Austin and Wadlington, 1992); that to be good at the arts means one cannot be good at mathematics (Tobias, 1991); that one must be logical as opposed to intuitive (Frank, 1990) and that there is a set right or wrong way to do mathematics (Cherkas, 1992) with an exact answer (Buxton, 1981).