Mathematics Self-Efficacy

Mathematics self-efficacy is defined to be the confidence a person has in his/her ability to learn and do mathematics.

Self-efficacy theory was originally reported by Bandura (1977) and referred to a person’s beliefs concerning his/her ability to successfully perform a given task or behavior. The factors that influence this measure are

• Performance accomplishments,

• Vicarious learning or modeling,

• Verbal persuasion, and

• Emotional arousal or anxiety.

Lent (1996) stated that these four sources interact dynamically to affect self-efficacy judgments. Bandura (1977, 1982) stated that performance accomplishments were hypothesized to be the most powerful source of self-efficacy, and that self-efficacy expectations could be learned and/or altered. In fact it was shown that task performance significantly and strongly influenced ratings of task selfefficacy, task interest, and global ability ratings. Success experiences produced elevations in self-efficacy, task interest, and ability ratings over time, while failure experiences depressed these same ratings (Campbell & Hackett, 1986).

Utilizing this cognitive theory, Betz and Hackett (1983) developed the Mathematics Self-efficacy Scale (MSES). The MSES is currently utilized both for research and counseling intervention and is intended to measure a person’s perception of his/her ability to perform various mathematics related tasks. There have been several iterations of the original MSES and the present scale contains a 34-item questionnaire which yields three scores in the following areas:

1. perceptions of ability to utilize mathematics in everyday tasks and activities,

2. perceptions of ability to complete mathematics and science related college

courses with a final grade of “A” or “B”, and

3. overall mathematics self-efficacy.

Mathematics self-efficacy is an important factor for the prediction of success of students in mathematics classes (Lent et al., 1993; Matsui, Matsui, & Ornish, 1990; Pedro, et al., 1981; Sherman & Fennema, 1977). College counselors reported that students who believe that they cannot succeed no matter what measure they take will avoid special tutoring sessions or avoid arranging special one-on-one help sessions with their instructors. They will not ask questions for clarification in class nor seek help from instructors during office hours. A student who does not believe that anything he/she does will affect the grade in a positive manner will not take advantage of outside activities specifically designed to help improve understanding of the mathematics. With regard to this avoidance, Pajares (1995) stated that

Self-efficacy beliefs … strongly influence the choices people make, the effort they expend, the strength of their perseverance in the face of adversity, and the degree of anxiety they experience. In part, these self-perceptions can be better predictors of behavior than actual capability because such self-beliefs are instrumental in determining what individuals do with the knowledge and skills they have.

Additionally, mathematics self-efficacy has been reported to significantly contribute to career choices (Post-Kammer & Smith, 1986). According to Betz (1978), mathematics anxiety may be a critical factor in a student’s educational and vocational decision and, in addition, may influence the student’s achievement of his/her educational and career goals. Self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1977, 1982; Hackett & Betz, 1981) and research investigating the role of mathematics self-efficacy in the career choice process (Betz & Hackett, 1983; Hackett & Betz, 1984) provide support for the view that mathematics-related self-efficacy, as influenced by gender, socialization, and math level and background, is more strongly predictive of math-related major and career choices than ability, math background, or gender alone or in combination…

In fact…, at least with college-aged women and men, self-efficacy expectations with regard to occupations and career-related domains are much more important than measured abilities (Hackett, 1985). The relationship of mathematics anxiety to performance and career choice is undeniable (Fennema, 1980). In studies completed in 1978, Betz (1978) found the following:

• students avoided college majors and careers if an extensive mathematics background was required

• older women reported higher levels of anxiety than did the younger women, and

• high school mathematics preparation strongly influenced a college student’s attitude about mathematics.

Tobias and Weissbrod (1980) found that students would stop studying mathematics to avoid having anxiety. Meece et al. (1990) found that “a large percentage of students stop taking mathematics courses by the 10th grade.” This action could severely limit the students’ educational and career aspirations. They saw this decision as affecting career options for women, and they reported that fewer women than men elect to take advanced mathematics courses in high school, which causes women to continue to be underrepresented in mathematics intensive career fields. With respect to race, Post et al. (1991) found that self-efficacy and confidence played a greater role in selection of career for African-American males than African-American females; however, the African- American males considered a broader choice of careers regardless of whether the field was mathematics or science related. Other noteworthy researchers pursuing an understanding concerning attitude towards mathematics, reported the following:

• Sternberg (1986) stated that there are many reasons other than intelligence which affect the level of a person’s performance,

• Dessart (1989) reported that some educators believe that attitude is more important than ability in predicting success,

• Seigel and Shaughnessy (1992) found that women were more insecure and anxious than men in calculus classes,

• Goleman (1994) stated that at best IQ accounts for only 20% of the life factors that determine life successes,

• Shaughnessy et al. (1994) found that significant predictors of success in calculus were “exacting in character, persevering, responsible, and conscientious” individuals, and

• Shaughnessy, et al. (1995) found that the personality factors of “privateness, intelligence, and emotional stability” contributed to the prediction of college calculus grades.

There is much to be learned from the cognitive theorists regarding the influence of self-efficacy on both high school students and college students with respect to level of mathematics courses taken and to career choices made. The researchers reviewed here emphatically urged educators of mathematics to take heed and understand that mathematics ability is secondary to the student’s perceptions (self-efficacy) of how well he/she can perform. Mathematics educators must understand that the student’s perception is his/her reality. This body of evidence should be enlightening to educators who have been unable to understand why students fail to meet their expectations with regard to asking questions for clarification and/or participating in extra help sessions. This would explain why the educators holding office hours rarely see the students who need the most help. In the students’ minds, nothing will help, and they are doomed to fail!