Constructivist theory- A perspective

Constructivist theory builds on the earlier work of Piaget, Bruner and Vygotsky (see Daniels, 2001); and Sasson (2001, p.189) describes constructivism as ‘… a mixture of Piagetian stage theory with postmodernist ideology’. The constructivist viewpoint on human learning suggests that true understanding cannot be directly

passed from one individual to another, but rather has to be constructed anew by each learner in his or her own mind as a result of experience and reflection (Waite-Stupiansky, 1997).

Adoption of a constructivist approach in the classroom requires a shift from a teacher-directed method to a student-centred, active learning approach (Phillips, 1995). It is also argued by social-constructivists that knowledge is socially constructed and thus requires inter-personal collaborative effort among learners. Constructivist approaches therefore place great importance on cooperative group work and discussion focused on authentic investigations and problem solving (Gagnon & Collay, 2001; Selley, 1999). Many constructivists believe that classrooms should become ‘communities of learners’ where teachers and children

are motivated to learn together (Eggen & Kauchak, 2003).

If one subscribes to a constructivist philosophy the teacher’s task is no longer one of developing instructional strategies to present information to students directly, but rather to discover ways of creating exploratory activities in which students may engage. The constructivist theory of learning leads to a processcentred teaching approach, with the role of the teacher changing from instructor to facilitator of children’s own explorations and discoveries. Learning occurs as students make connections between new insights they obtain and their existing foundation of knowledge.

Constructivist practices draw heavily on the principles espoused by Vygotsky (1962) and Bruner (1966) – for example, the social nature of the learning process, the role of language in learning and concept formation, and the pedagogical strategy of ‘scaffolding’. Scaffolding refers to the variety of ways in which teachers and others help or support learners to move beyond their current level of understanding by giving them cues, suggestions or even direct guidance at appropriate moments in their investigations or activities. These ‘… social acts of assistance are gradually internalized by the child to become the basis of selfregulated thinking and learning’ (Kershner, 2000, p.292). Learning that builds effectively on the child’s current capabilities is said to be within the learner’s zone of proximal development (ZPD). The ZPD defines those things a learner can do if given some small amount of assistance by the teacher or peer. After such assistance the individual will from then on be able to do the tasks independently. Teaching, it is argued, should be designed to take learners smoothly from their current zone of development into the next.

Constructivist theory has gained much popularity in recent years and has significantly influenced our thinking about teaching methods (De Vries, 2002; Gabler & Schroeder, 2003). Constructivist principles now underpin many of the curriculum guidelines created by education departments around the world. Originally associated with contemporary approaches to mathematics, science and social studies teaching, constructivism has now permeated almost all areas of the curriculum, and regularly emerges under titles such as problem-based learning or the enquiry approach (Marlowe, 1998).

The constructivist viewpoint is not without its critics when it comes to practical implementation in classrooms (for example, Hirsch, 2000; Westwood, 1996). Cobb (1994) for example refers to the fact that the justification for constructivism is often reduced to the mantra-like slogan ‘students must construct their own

knowledge’; but no hard evidence is provided to support the claim that all students are effective in learning and ‘making meaning’ for themselves. Nor is much specific practical advice given to teachers, beyond the need for using child-centered activities and discussion, perhaps leaving teachers to assume that student engagement in an activity always equals learning (Eggen & Kauchak, 2003). This brave assumption is sometimes very far from reality.

The use of child-centered, process-type approaches to the total exclusion of direct teaching is unwise, particularly in the teaching and learning of basic skills such as reading, writing and mathematics (Stanovich, 1994). Pressley and Harris (1997) point out that two previous ‘great reforms’ in education based on principles of child-centeredness have failed this century because they were too extreme and too difficult to sustain. Activity-based and problem-solving curricula are not easy to implement, particularly where there are large classes or when behavior management is a problem.

The case that purely constructivist approaches to learning are sometimes inefficient or inadequate comes from Sweller (1999, p.156) who writes:

We all must actively engage with information and construct a knowledge base, whether the information is directly presented to us or whether we must search … The major difference between direct and indirect presentation of information is that it is more difficult to construct schemas if we must unnecessarily discover aspects of the material ourselves rather than being told.

It also seems likely that rather than being generally applicable to all types of learning, constructivist strategies are actually important at particular stages of learning. For example, Jonassen (1992) presents a three-stage model of knowledge acquisition in which ‘initial knowledge acquisition’ is stage one, followed by ‘advanced knowledge’, and finally ‘expertise’. He strongly supports the view that initial knowledge acquisition is served best by direct teaching, while advanced knowledge and expertise develop best through a practical application of constructivist principles. Pressley and Harris (1997) argue that excellent teaching often begins with explanation and modelling, and continues with teacher scaffolding of students’ more independent efforts. Stanovich (1994) has applied an identical argument to the teaching of early reading skills, with word identification skills and decoding being taught explicitly, and higher-order skills being developed under the control of the learner as he or she seeks to construct meaning from text. According to Creemers (1994) direct teaching is often the most efficient method for first imparting new information and skills; and this view is certainly supported by the research evidence from work with students with learning difficulties (for example, Kavale & Forness, 2000b; Swanson, 2000a).

Perhaps the most serious problem associated with an exclusive use of constructivist principles in the classroom is that some children do not cope particularly well with unstructured tasks. They experience failure and frustration when the demands of learning tasks are not made clear to them and when they are not taught appropriate strategies to use (Graham & Harris, 1994; Westwood, 1993). Not all children discover for themselves the many strategies they need to use when coping with the academic demands of the school curriculum. For some students, discovery methods are inefficient at best – requiring far longer time than it would take to teach the same strategies to children using direct explanation. Problem-based learning and discovery methods may increase the cognitive load and misdirect the use of available learning time to a detrimental level for lower ability students. On the other hand, many children are capable of making new ideas their own quite quickly when these ideas are transmitted clearly to them.

Pressley and McCormick (1995) believe that good quality instruction from a teacher, including the key components of modelling, direct explanation and guided practice actually stimulates rather than restricts constructive mental activity in students. Presenting knowledge directly to a learner does not prevent the individual from making meaning. Being told something by a teacher might be just what learners require at a particular moment in order to help them construct meaning. Actively presenting information to students in a way that helps them organise their network of knowledge (schemata) has been shown by research to be a key component of effective teaching (Rosenshine, 1995).

The most effective lessons are likely to contain an appropriate balance between teacher direction and student activity. The balance must be achieved in the planning stage when the teacher takes account of the types of learning involved in the particular lesson and the characteristics of the students. The two viewpoints on learning and teaching — direct instruction vs. student-centred, constructivist learning models — are not mutually exclusive.