Once a classroom teacher is clear about the instructional goal within a unit, he or she should identify specific instructional techniques for specific types of knowledge. Even though this meta-analysis cannot yet be considered complete, it suggests that the instructional techniques identified are most effective for the various possible instructional goals.
Knowledge Goals
If the instructional goal is to enhance students’ understanding of vocabulary terms and phrases:
1. Provide students with a brief description or informal definition of each word or phrase.
2. Have students describe the words or phrases in their own words and represent their personal descriptions using some form of nonlinguistic modality (e.g., pictures, semantic maps, charts).
3. Occasionally have students review the terms and phrases making refinements in their representation.
If the instructional goal is to enhance students’ understanding of details:
a) Present the details in some form of story or elaborated description.
b) Have students represent their understanding of the details in linguistic (e.g., notes, outlines) and nonlinguistic formats (e.g., pictures, semantic maps, charts, etc.).
If the instructional goal is to enhance students’ understanding of organizing ideas (e.g., concepts, generalizations, principles):
a) Demonstrate the organizing ideas to students in concrete terms.
b) Have students apply the concept, generalization, or principle to new situations.
If the instructional goal is to enhance students’ ability to perform subject-specific algorithms:
a)Present the various steps in the algorithm.
b) Have students practice the algorithm paying particular attention to how it might be improved.
If the instructional goal is to enhance students’ ability to perform subject-specific tactics or processes:
a) Present students with general rules or heuristics as opposed to specific steps.
b) Have students practice the tactic or process paying particular attention to how it might be improved.
If the goal is to enhance students’ ability to perform psychomotor skills:
a) Present students with a model of the psychomotor skill.
b) Have students practice the skill paying particular attention to how it might be improved.
Cognitive Goals
If the goal is to enhance students’ ability to store and retrieve knowledge:
a) Provide students with strategies that use the representation of knowledge in non linguistic forms (e.g., mental images).
If the goal is to enhance students’ ability to identify similarities and differences, to analyze the reasonableness of new knowledge, to generate inferences about new knowledge, or to apply organizing ideas:
a) Provide students with a set of heuristics, as opposed to steps regarding the processes involved.
b) Have students practice the heuristics, paying particular attention to how they might be improved.
If the goal is to enhance students’ ability to represent knowledge in a variety of forms:
a) Provide students with strategies for representing knowledge linguistically.
b)Provide students with strategies for representing knowledge non linguistically.
If the goal is to enhance students’ ability to comprehend information presented orally (i.e., listening):
a) Present students with a set of heuristics, as opposed to steps for the overall process of listening.
b) Have students practice the heuristics, paying particular attention to how they might be improved.
If the goal is to enhance students’ ability to comprehend information presented in written form:
a) Provide students with information and strategies designed to enhance their ability to decode print. Have them practice the strategies, paying particular attention to how they might be improved.
b) Provide students with a set of heuristics for the overall process of reading. Have students practice the heuristics, paying particular attention to how they might be improved.
c) Provide students with strategies for activating what they know about a topic prior to reading.
d) Provide students with strategies for summarizing information they have read.
e) Provide students with information about the various text formats they will encounter.
f) Provide students with strategies for representing what they have read in non linguistic form and as mental images.
If the goal is to enhance students’ ability to present information in oral form (i.e., speak):
a) Present students with information about the various conventions used in different situations.
b) Provide students with heuristics for the overall process of speaking in various situations, and have them practice the heuristics, paying particular attention to how they might be improved.
c) Provide students with strategies for analyzing a topic in depth prior to speaking about it.
If the goal is to enhance students’ ability to present information in written form:
a) Provide students with heuristics for the overall process of writing, and have students practice these heuristics, paying particular attention to how they might be improved.
b) Present students with strategies for encoding thought into print.
d) Present students with strategies for analyzing a topic in depth prior to writing about it.
e) Provide students with information about the various discourse formats in which they will be
expected to communicate.
If the goal is to enhance students’ ability to make decisions, solve problems, or perform investigations:
a) Provide students with heuristics for the overall processes of decision-making, problem solving, and investigation, and have them practice the heuristics, paying particular attention to how they might be improved.
b) Provide students with strategies for using what they know about the topics that are the focus of problems, decisions, and investigations.
If the goal is to enhance students’ ability to engage in experimental inquiry:
a) Provide students with heuristics for the overall process of experimental inquiry, and have them practice the heuristics, paying particular attention to how they might be improved.
b) Provide students with strategies for generating and testing hypotheses.
c) Have students apply the experimental inquiry process to a variety of situations.
Metacognitive Goals
If the goal is to enhance students’ ability to set explicit goals, identify strategies for accomplishing goals, or monitor progress toward goals:
1. Have students verbalize their thinking as they engage in these functions, and analyze the effectiveness of their thought processes.
2. Present students with information about the nature and importance of using the metacognitive system.
If the goal is to enhance students’ ability to monitor their use of the various dispositions:
1. Provide students with explicit information about the nature and function of the various dispositions.
Self Goals
If the goal is to enhance students’ understanding of and control of their beliefs about self attributes, self and others, the nature of the world, efficacy, or purpose:
1. Have students verbalize their thinking relative to these areas.
2. Have students make linkages between specific beliefs and specific behaviors in their lives.
3. Have students identify those behaviors they wish to change.
4. Provide students with strategies for altering their thinking relative to the behaviors they would like to change.
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