Knowledge Utilization Processes

There are four knowledge utilization processes: (1) decision-making, (2) problem solving, (3) experimental inquiry, and (4) investigation.

Decision-making: The process of decision-making is utilized when an individual must select between two or more alternatives (Baron, 1982, 1985; Halpern, 1984). The execution of the decision-making process requires an individual to retrieve from permanent memory his prior knowledge about the topic. For example, if the individual is going to make a decision regarding where to go on a Sunday afternoon pleasure drive, he will retrieve what he knows about local destinations. He will also retrieve what he knows about the various steps and heuristics involved in the overall process of decision-making. Steps and heuristics commonly associated with the overall process of decision-making include:

1. identification of alternatives

2.assigning of values to alternatives

3.determination of probability of success

4.determination of alternatives with highest value and highest probability of success

The execution of each of these steps requires the individual to analyze the data in working memory using the basic information processing functions. For example, to assign value to alternatives, an individual must use the matching function to determine the similarities and differences between the characteristics of the alternatives that have been identified and the characteristics of a "successful Sunday drive" as defined by the individual.

In summary, decision-making involves the following aspects:

1. Activation, via retrieval of knowledge about the topic & the alternatives under consideration and personal values related to those alternatives

2. Activation, via the retrieval function, of knowledge about the overall process involved in decision-making

3. Analysis of data in working memory via the information processing functions

Problem-solving: The process of problem-solving is utilized when an individual is attempting to accomplish a goal for which an obstacle exists (Rowe, 1985). As is the case with decision-making, problem-solving requires the activation of prior knowledge about the topic. For example, if an individual wishes to be at a specific location some miles from her home by a certain time and her car breaks down, she has a problem & she is attempting to accomplish a goal (i.e., to transport herself to a specific location) and an obstacle has arisen (i.e., her usual mode of transportation is not available). To address this problem effectively, the individual would have to retrieve from permanent memory her prior knowledge about different methods of transportation that are alternatives to taking her car (e.g., taking the bus, calling a friend) as well as options for fixing her car within the available time. In addition to knowledge about the topic, the individual would have to retrieve her knowledge about the overall process of problem-solving. Steps and heuristics commonly associated with problem-solving include:

1. identification of obstacle to goal

2. possible re-analysis of goal

3. identification of alternatives

4. evaluation of alternatives

5. selection and execution of alternatives

(Halpern, 1984; Rowe, 1985; Sternberg, 1987)

Again, the execution of each of these steps or heuristics requires the individual to analyze the data in working memory using the information processing functions. Of these functions, information specification and information screening are probably key factors. An individual uses the specifier to generate hypotheses about possible ways to overcome the obstacle. The information screen-er is used to evaluate the feasibility and likelihood of the options that have been generated. In summary, problem-solving involves the following components:

1. Activation via retrieval of knowledge about the topic

2. Activation via retrieval of knowledge about the overall process involved in problem-solving process

3. Analysis of data in working memory via the information processing function

Experimental inquiry: Experimental Inquiry involves generating and testing hypotheses for the purpose of understanding some physical or psychological phenomenon. To engage in experimental inquiry, an individual must activate knowledge of the topic. For example, if an individual has a question about how airplanes fly, she will activate her knowledge of concepts important to the phenomenon under investigation such as lift and drag. Additionally, she will retrieve from permanent memory knowledge of the steps and heuristics involved in the process of experimental inquiry. The steps and heuristics commonly associated with the experimental hypothesis include:

1. making predictions based on known or hypothesized principles

2. designing a way to test the predictions

3. evaluating the validity of the principles based on the outcome of the test

                                                                                                        (Halpern, 1984; Ross, 1988)

The execution of these steps requires the individual to analyze the data in working memory using the information processing function. Of these functions, information specification and information screening are probably key. For example, the information specification function would be used to generate predictions based on known principles about lift and drag. The information screening function would be used to judge the reasonableness of the results of the experiment given the individual’s initial understanding of the concepts of lift and drag.

In summary, the experimental inquiry process involves the following components:

1. Activation via retrieval of knowledge about the topic under investigation

2. Activation via retrieval of knowledge about the overall process involved in experimental inquiry

3. Analysis of data in working memory via the information processing function.

Investigation: It is the process of generating and testing hypotheses about past, present, or future events. It is similar to experimental inquiry in that hypotheses are generated and tested. It differs from experimental inquiry in that it utilizes different "rules of evidence." Specifically, the rules of evidence for investigation adhere to the criteria for sound argumentation like the establishment of warrants (Toulmin, 1958; Toulmin, Rieke and Janik, 1981), whereas the "rules of evidence" for experimental inquiry adhere to the criteria for statistical hypotheses testing. In short, the investigation process can be conceptualized in the same way as the experimental inquiry process:

1. Activation via retrieval of knowledge about the topic

2. Activation via retrieval of knowledge about the overall process involved in investigation

3. Analysis of data in working memory via the information processing function

From the discussion above, it should be clear that all the knowledge utilization processes have the same basic syntax. Specifically, they require individuals to retrieve knowledge of the topic from permanent memory as well as knowledge of the overall process involved. Additionally, they all make heavy use of the information processing functions to analyze the data in working memory throughout the execution of the overall process. The primary difference in the knowledge utilization processes is in the steps and heuristics that define the overall process and the information processing functions they most heavily employ.